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CARDIAC OUTPUT

Total blood volume pumped per minute. Stroke volume × heart rate. Primary determinant of VO2max.

Rest: ~5 L/min. Max exercise trained cyclist: 25-35 L/min. Elite: 35-40 L/min. Increases via both stroke volume (up to ~50% max HR) and heart rate (above that, SV plateaus). VO2max is partly genetic because maximum cardiac output is constrained by heart size.

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