Cadence is the number of pedal revolutions per minute (RPM), and it is one of the simplest numbers on your bike computer to change — and one of the most misunderstood. Most trained cyclists operate best at 85-95 RPM on flat ground, but climbing cadence, age-related shifts, and deliberate low-cadence training each demand a different approach. The athletes who get cadence right aren't chasing a single magic number; they're using cadence as a tool across different terrains and training phases.
Here's the thing nobody tells you about cadence: there is no universally optimal number. Lance Armstrong pedalled at 110 RPM. Jan Ullrich ground at 70. Both won Grand Tours. The right cadence depends on the terrain, the effort, your age, your muscle-fibre composition, and what you're trying to achieve in any given session. This guide pulls together the cadence research and the practical advice from World Tour coaches who have appeared on the Roadman Podcast — John Wakefield, Tim Kerrison, and Dan Lorang among them — so you can stop guessing and start using cadence deliberately.
In this guide:
- Optimal cadence ranges and why they vary
- Low-cadence training: the session that nearly doubles VO2max gains
- Best cadence for climbing
- Cadence and age: why masters cyclists should spin higher
- How to shift your cadence: a practical protocol
- What the experts say
- Frequently asked questions
Optimal Cadence Ranges and Why They Vary
The short answer: 85-95 RPM on flat, steady-state riding is the range where most trained cyclists find the best compromise between muscular load and cardiovascular cost. But let me break this down, because the range shifts with context.
| Scenario | Typical Optimal Range | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Flat, steady pace | 85-95 RPM | Low muscular load, cardiovascular cost manageable |
| Climbing (seated) | 70-85 RPM | Gravity slows you down; gearing limits higher cadences |
| Sprinting | 100-120 RPM | Maximum power output demands high leg speed |
| Time trial | 85-95 RPM | Sustained economy at threshold |
| Low-cadence training | 40-60 RPM | Deliberate overload for muscular adaptation |
The metabolic research shows something interesting: your self-selected cadence is usually close to your metabolically optimal cadence. The body is better at finding its own rhythm than most people give it credit for. The problem isn't that cyclists pedal at the wrong cadence by instinct — it's that they pedal at one cadence all the time and never train the other ranges.
Higher cadences shift the load from muscle to cardiovascular system. Lower cadences shift the load from cardiovascular system to muscle. Your muscles fatigue in a way your heart doesn't — which is why spinning faster at a given power often feels easier after the first 20 minutes, even though your heart rate is slightly higher.
→ Read the full guide: What Cadence Should You Pedal At? The High vs Low Cadence Debate
Low-Cadence Training: The Session That Nearly Doubles VO2max Gains
This is where cadence stops being a preference and starts being a training tool. And it's the part of the cadence conversation that changed the most in 2024.
The 2024 Habis study in PLOS ONE compared two groups doing identical interval sessions — same duration, same power, same rest — with one difference: one group pedalled at 40-60 RPM and the other at their freely chosen cadence (typically 80-90 RPM). The low-cadence group gained 8.7% in VO2max over 8 weeks. The freely chosen cadence group gained 4.6%. Same work. Different cadence. Nearly double the result.
John Wakefield at Red Bull-Bora-Hansgrohe has been prescribing this kind of work for years. His go-to session:
- 4 x 4 minutes at 40-60 RPM
- On a 4-7% gradient (real climb, not a trainer)
- RPE 7/10 — hard but not threshold
- 4 minutes easy spinning between reps
The mechanism is type 2 muscle fibre recruitment at aerobic intensities. By forcing higher torque at lower cadence, you recruit fibres that normally sit idle during Zone 2 work — and you build them aerobically without adding training hours. For the time-crunched amateur who can't add volume, this is one of the highest-leverage sessions available.
Here's the thing nobody tells you about low-cadence work: it isn't about suffering. If you're grinding a 53x11 up a 10% climb at 35 RPM and your knees are screaming, you've missed the point entirely. The cadence should be low enough to feel the torque demand but high enough that you're still pedalling smoothly. Stay seated. Stay in control.
→ Read the full guide: Low Cadence Training: The Study That Proved the Coaches Right → Read the full guide: Low Cadence Training: The Session World Tour Coaches Kept Prescribing
Best Cadence for Climbing
The internet says "spin like Pogacar," but the science is more interesting than that. Pros climb at 90+ RPM because they have the gearing, the power-to-weight ratio, and the cardiovascular ceiling to sustain it. Most amateurs do not.
For the majority of recreational and amateur cyclists, the best climbing cadence sits at 70-85 RPM — lower than flat-road cadence, but not a grind. Below 60 RPM, the muscular load and torque cost per pedal stroke climbs sharply. Your knees, hips, and lower back absorb forces they weren't built to handle repeatedly over a 45-minute climb.
The bigger lever for climbing cadence is gearing, not technique. A wide-range cassette (34t or larger) lets you hold 75 RPM on gradients where a standard cassette would force you down to 55 RPM. That's not a bike-fit detail — it's a performance decision.
| Gradient | Target Cadence | Gearing Note |
|---|---|---|
| 3-5% | 80-90 RPM | Standard cassette usually fine |
| 6-8% | 75-85 RPM | 32t+ cassette recommended |
| 9-12% | 70-80 RPM | 34t+ cassette strongly recommended |
| 12%+ | 65-75 RPM | Compact chainset + 34t minimum |
Seated climbing at a steady cadence is almost always more efficient than standing and grinding — unless the gradient forces you out of the saddle or you're making an attack. Stay seated, keep the cadence rhythmic, and let the gearing do the work.
→ Read the full guide: Best Cadence for Climbing: What the Science Says
Cadence and Age: Why Masters Cyclists Should Spin Higher
Most masters cyclists pedal at the cadence they fell into years ago — 80, 82, 84 RPM. The body that worked at that cadence at 28 isn't the body riding the bike at 48.
Here's the shift: as you age, your fast-twitch muscle fibres decline faster than your slow-twitch fibres. The force you can produce per pedal stroke drops. Meanwhile, your cardiovascular system holds up relatively well — a trained 50-year-old's heart and lungs can still sustain high-cadence spinning without the same kind of fatigue that heavy torque demands cause in ageing muscles and joints.
The practical recommendation for riders over 40:
- Flat, steady riding: aim for 90-100 RPM — typically 5-10 RPM higher than at 25
- Climbing: aim for 85-95 RPM — higher than younger riders' optimal range
- The transition: add 2-3 RPM per month over a 3-month block rather than forcing a sudden change
The joint-load argument is the clincher. Every pedal stroke at 70 RPM puts more force through the knee than the same power at 90 RPM. Over thousands of pedal strokes across a 4-hour ride, that adds up. Masters cyclists who spin higher report fewer knee and hip complaints — not because they're fitter, but because they've reduced the force per revolution.
This doesn't contradict the low-cadence training section above. Deliberate low-cadence intervals are a controlled, limited-dose training stimulus. Riding every ride at low cadence is a different thing entirely — and for masters riders, it's a recipe for joint wear.
→ Read the full guide: Cycling Cadence by Age: Why Masters Cyclists Should Spin Higher
How to Shift Your Cadence: A Practical Protocol
You can't just decide to pedal at 95 RPM when you've spent five years at 82. The neuromuscular patterns take time to rewire. Here's a 6-week approach:
Weeks 1-2: During your easy Zone 2 rides, include 3 x 5-minute blocks at your target cadence (current +5 RPM). Let power drop if it needs to. The goal is the cadence, not the watts.
Weeks 3-4: Extend the blocks to 3 x 10 minutes at the target cadence. Start including the higher cadence in your warm-up.
Weeks 5-6: Aim to ride entire easy sessions at the new cadence. If it feels natural by now, add another 2-3 RPM and repeat.
The common mistake is forcing a higher cadence in hard sessions too early. Build the neuromuscular pattern at low intensity first. Once it's automatic at Zone 2, it will carry over into harder efforts naturally.
What the Experts Say
- John Wakefield — Director of Coaching & Sports Science, Red Bull-Bora-Hansgrohe — on low-cadence torque intervals as a primary tool for building muscular durability and aerobic capacity without adding training volume.
- Tim Kerrison — ex-Head of Performance, Team Sky / INEOS Grenadiers — on cadence as part of a race-specific training plan, not a standalone variable to optimise in isolation.
- Dan Lorang — Head of Performance, Red Bull-Bora-Hansgrohe — on listening to the athlete's natural cadence preference and adjusting gradually rather than forcing a number from a textbook.
→ Hear the conversations: All Podcast Guests
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the best cadence for cycling? For flat, steady-state riding, 85-95 RPM is the range where most trained cyclists find the best balance between muscular and cardiovascular load. But cadence should vary with terrain — 70-85 RPM on climbs, higher for sprints, and deliberately low (40-60 RPM) for specific training sessions. There is no single number that's best for all situations.
Should I use low-cadence training? Yes — if your knees are healthy and you do it correctly. The 2024 Habis study showed 8.7% VO2max gains with low-cadence intervals versus 4.6% at freely chosen cadence. John Wakefield's protocol of 4 x 4 minutes at 40-60 RPM on a 4-7% gradient is the go-to session. Start with 2 reps and build to 4 over three weeks. If you have a history of knee problems, clear it with a physio first.
Does optimal cadence change with age? It does. Masters cyclists over 40 generally benefit from raising their cadence by 5-10 RPM compared to what felt natural at 25. The shift protects joints — lower cadence means higher force per pedal stroke, and ageing knees handle that worse than a slightly elevated heart rate from spinning faster. Aim for 90-100 RPM on the flat and 85-95 RPM on climbs.
What cadence should I use for climbing? Most amateurs climb best at 70-85 RPM. Below 60 RPM, the torque cost per stroke rises sharply and joint load becomes a concern on longer climbs. The most important climbing-cadence decision isn't technique — it's gearing. Fit a cassette with a 34t or larger sprocket so you can hold 75+ RPM on steep gradients instead of grinding at 55.
Why do pros pedal at such high cadences? Pros spin at 90-110 RPM because their massive aerobic engines can absorb the cardiovascular cost, and their gearing allows it even on steep climbs. Their power-to-weight ratio means they're moving faster at any given gradient, which keeps cadence high even in a 34x28. Copying their cadence without their fitness just spikes your heart rate for no performance gain.
Can cadence training improve my FTP? Indirectly, yes. Low-cadence torque intervals improve VO2max and muscular endurance — both of which support higher FTP. And raising your default cadence on endurance rides can reduce muscular fatigue, letting you arrive at hard sessions fresher. Cadence isn't a direct FTP lever, but it's a meaningful supporting one.